Culture

1. Definition of Culture

Culture is like a black box which we know is there but not what it contains (Hofstede, 1980). It brings the meaning that culture is a complex multidimensional phenomenon that is difficult to define, and the hundreds of different definitions presented in the literature reflect this. For example, Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1985) documented that there are over 160 definitions of culture. Because culture is broad in its scope, theorists have had difficulties in arriving at one central definition of culture and have had different views about what constitutes the meaning of culture. What then is culture? A number of relevant definitions to this research include the following:

a.    Damen, L. (1987: 367) who studies about Culture Learning: The Fifth Dimension on the Language Classroom defined that Culture is to learn and share human patterns or models for living; day- to-day living patterns. These patterns and models pervade all aspects of human social interaction.

b.    Lederach, J.P. (1995: 9) who studies on Conflict transformation Across Cultures said that Culture is the shared knowledge and schemes created by a set of people for perceiving, interpreting, expressing, and responding to the social realities around them.

c.    Hofstede, G. (1984: 51) who studies on National culture and Corporate Culture define that culture is the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one category of people from another.

d.    Parson, T. (1949: 8) who write the essay in Sociological Theory give the definitions of culture as the consists in those patterns relative to behavior and the products of human action which may be inherited, that is, passed on from generation to generation independently of the biological genes.

These different definitions reflect different theoretical bases for understanding the concept of culture and criteria for evaluating human activity. This also shows the difficulties to set one central definition. As a result, the researcher found more detailed explanations of culture from the book called International Tourism Culture and Behavior which explains culture from a narrower perspective points to different aspects of the concept and reflects its essential feature (Reisinger, 2009:87).  Accordingly culture refers to:

a.  Human Environment: culture has been created by humans, it is a part of a human made environment that hold human group together.

b.  Way of life: culture is a way of life of group of people or an entire society; it shows how to live and what standards and criteria to use to decide what to do in life and how to do things.

c.  Behavior: Culture influence human behavior and shows how people should behave. It determines the patterns of behavior associated with particular group of people, and the conditions and circumstances under which various behaviors occur. Culture also helps to interpret, understand, and predict others’ behavior. People’s behavior depends upon the culture in which they have been raised. Culture is the foundation of human behavior.

d.  Dress and appearance: Culture dictates how people should dress .It determines what clothing people wear for a business or casual meeting, as well as at home. To be socially accepted people dress appropriately for the occasion. Cultural customs and traditions determine the dress code and color, the length of hair, the jewelry to be worn, and the amount of make up to be used. Some cultures accept jeans worn by youth and the elders (e.g. in the United States), others favor traditional dress, (e.g. Japanese kimono or the sarong in Southeast Asia). Cultures determine a sense of aesthetics.

e.  Food and eating habits: Culture determines how food is prepared, cooked, presented, and consumed. For example, in some cultures people eat beef (e.g. in the United States), while in others beef is forbidden (e.g. India). In some cultures people use folks and knifes to eat (e.g. Europeans), while in others, people use chopsticks (e.g. Chinese), or their hands (e.g. Indians). Culture determines table manners. For example, one can distinguish between Europeans and Americans by observing how they hold folks and knives at the dinner table.

f.   Values and norms: Culture dictates the priorities people should attach the certain values; it indicates what should be the most important and least important values. In some cultures individuals are concerned with work, personal achievements, and material things (e.g. the United States), whereas in others culture people are expected to share, obey, and be concerned about others (e.g. Asia). Culture helps to reaffirm values, cope with difficulties, and find solutions to problems. Culture includes systems of values, and values create culture.

g.  Way of thinking and doing things: Culture is the socially acquired way of thinking, feeling, and doing things. Culture is the means through which human being communicate their thoughts and values and fulfill their need.

h.  Work and leisure habits: Culture determines attitude towards work, work habits and practices, accomplishments, assessments, promotions, incentives, responsibilities, work ethic, worthiness of activity, royalty to employer, commitment to quality of work and service, and ways of making decisions. In some cultures people “live to work” (e.g. the United States), in others, people “work to live” (e.g. Australia, France). Culture also determines attitudes towards leisure, travel habits, frequency and seasonality of travel, preferred modes of travel and accommodation, source of information used, spending patterns, length of stay, and destination selection.

2.     Cultural values

In general, cultures have elements that are universal. The elements of a universal belong to mean idea of the world`s culture. According to Koentjaraningrat (1990: 203) the elements of culture in the world includes (1) language, (2) knowledge of the system, (3) social organization, (4) living equipment and technological systems, (5) the livelihood systems of life, (6 ) religious system, and (7) art systems.

Based on the substance of culture, it can be indicating that every nation in the world has universal elements. However, the elements of universal culture have a different set of values for each other. That is caused, because every society that produce and supporter the culture have the different way. Culture as a result of creativity, taste, and creation society actualize environment.

Every culture is an own expression of culture. Values which contain in the culture is something that is very valuable to the owner of cultures. Therefore, the value is a guide to the pattern of attitudes and patterns of to do the members of the public. Value is a parameter for the people`s behavior (community) which can distinguish the people behavior (community) with the other cultural community.

Context value that as the culture identity of a nation with the other. Therefore, the elements of each nation's culture are universal. But they contain of unique values for one nation to another. The uniqueness of this value reflects the characteristics of cultural form and content owners.

What about the cultural values of a nation to do these? It has been emphasized in the level of value which contains the unique cultural values of a nation that reflects the characteristics of behavioral and psychological. The value itself is a way of life or the owner of the nation's ideals of culture.

Relies on a description of the culture and values, the conclusions that can be explained is the value of a nation's culture is the culture of a nation that has universal elements that apply to the culture at large, but also have unique value that reflects the characteristics of form and content (behavioral and inhabitants) national culture is concerned.

Sources:  

Hofstede, G. 1980. Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work Related Values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Kroeber, A. and Kluckhohn, C. 1985. Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. New York: Random House.

Damen, L. 1987. Culture Learning: The Fifth Dimension on the Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Lederach, J.P. 1995. Preparing for Peace: Conflict Transformation Across Cultures. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.

Parson, T. 1949. Essay in Sociological Theory. Glencoe, IL.

Reisinger, Yvette. 2009. International Tourism Culture and Behavior. New York: Routledge.

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